NUCLEAR: China

Mainland China has nine nuclear power reactors in operation and a further two units under construction. Additional reactors are planned, to give a fivefold increase in nuclear capacity to 40 GWe by 2020. The country aims to become self-sufficient in reactor design and construction, as well as other aspects of the fuel cycle. Electricity demand is growing very rapidly. Mainland China is starting to rely heavily on imported uranium to fuel its nuclear power program. On Taiwan six nuclear power reactors operate and two advanced reactors are under construction.

Nuclear power development in mainland China commenced in 1970 and the industry has now moved to a steady development period. While coal is the main energy source in China, most reserves are in the north or northwest and present an enormous logistic problem.

Most electricity produced in mainland China is supplied by fossil fuels (about 80%, mainly coal) and hydro power (about 18%). Two large hydro projects are under construction: Three Gorges of 18.2 GWe and Yellow River of 15.8 GWe.

Nationally about 340 GWe is installed and 1575 TWh was generated in 2002. Nuclear power has an important role, especially in the coastal areas remote from the coalfields and where the economy is developing rapidly. In 2003 it provided 41.6 billion kWh - 2.2% of total, and now has 6.6 GWe installed.

While annual growth in electricity demand of only 4.3% had been projected, that to early 2004 was 16%, giving rise to severe power shortages.

The first two nuclear power plants in mainland China were at Daya Bay near Hong Kong and Qinshan, south of Shanghai, with construction starting in the mid 1980s.

The two reactors of the Guangdong Nuclear plant at Daya Bay were standard 3-loop French units supplied by Framatome, with GEC-Alstom turbines. Electricite de France (EDF) managed construction, starting August 1987, with the participation of Chinese engineers. There were long outages in 1994-96 when Framatome had to replace major components. The plant produces about 13 billion kWh per year, with 70% transmitted to Hong Kong and 30% to Guangdong.

Qinshan-1, in Zhejiang province 100 km SW of Shanghai, is China's first indigenously-designed and constructed nuclear power plant (though with the pressure vessel supplied by Mitsubishi, Japan). Construction work spanned 6.5 years from March 1985, with criticality in Dec 1991. It was shut down for 14 months for major repairs from mid 1998.

Lingao-1 started up in February 2002 and entered commercial operation in May. Lingao-2 was connected to the grid about September 2002. The two Lingao reactors use French technology supplied by Framatome ANP, virtually a replica of Daya Bay next door in Guangdong province.

Qinshan phase 2 (units 2 and 3) are locally-designed and constructed 2-loop reactors, scaled up from Qinshan-1, and designated CNP-600. Unit 2 started up at the end of 2001 and entered commercial operation in April 2002. Unit 3 started up in March 2004, with commercial operation in May 2004.

Qinshan phase 3 (units 4 and 5) use the CANDU 6 technology, with Atomic Energy of Canada (AECL) being the main contractor of the project on a turnkey basis. Construction began in 1997. They are each about 665 MWe net. Unit 4 started up in September 2002 and unit 5 in April 2003.

China's operational reactors had an average load factor of 77% in 2002.

Two Russian AES-91 power plants (with 1000 MWe VVER reactors) are being constructed at Jiangsu Tianwan in Liangyungang under a cooperation agreement between China and Russia. They incorporate Finnish safety features and Siemens instrumentation and control systems.

From 2006, when all the 11 units operate, nuclear power will provide some 8350 MWe of the total electric capacity.

Current policy and plans

China has set the following points as key elements of its nuclear energy policy:
 

• PWRs will be the mainstream but not sole reactor type.
• nuclear fuel assemblies are fabricated and supplied indigenously.
• domestic manufacturing of plant and equipment will be maximised, with self-reliance in design and project management.
• international cooperation is nevertheless encouraged.

The government plans to increase nuclear generating capacity to 36 or 40 GWe by 2020, requiring an average of 2 GWe per year being added.

China's tenth Economic Plan (2001-2005) incorporates the construction of nuclear power plants, though the timeline for contracts has been extended. In 2003 preliminary approval was given for two 1000 MWe PWR units at Lingdong in Guangdong province (near Lingao) and two more at Sanmen in Zhejiang (near Qinshan). In May 2004 the China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) applied to build eight large new reactors, including those at Lingdong and Sanmen with preliminary approval. The four pairs are:
Lingdong, in Guangdong province, to duplicate the Lingao nuclear plant and using either the same Framatome technology,
Qinshan, in Zhejiang province, units 3 & 4 of phase 2, duplicating the indigenous CNP-600 units, upgraded to 650 MWe.
Sanmen, in Zhejiang province, using advanced foreign technology and design, and
Yangjiang, in Guangdong province, 500 km west of Hong Kong, similarly.

In July and September 2004 the State Council formally approved the four units at Lingdong and Sanmen, followed by six units at Yangjiang (two to start with), these to be 1000 or 1500 MWe reactors. The two 650 MWe Qinshan units were subsequently approved and CNNC announced that the next two there would be 1000 MWe indigenous units, possibly a 3-loop scale-up of phase 2.

The Sanmen and Yanjiang plants are subject to an open bidding process for third-generation designs, with contracts being awarded in 2005. Westinghouse bid its AP 1000 (which now has US NRC final design approval), Areva (Framatome ANP) bid its EPR of 1600 MWe and Atomstroyexport bid its V-392 version of VVER-1000.

The US, French and Russian governments were reported to be giving firm support as finance and support arrangements were put in place. The US Export-Import bank approved $5 billion in loan guarantees for the Westinghouse bid, and the French Coface company was expected similarly to finance Areva for Framatome ANP's bid. The US Nuclear Regulatory Commission gave approval for Westinghouse to export equipment and engineering services as well as the initial fuel load and one replacement for the four units. Bids for both 2-unit plants were received in Beijing on behalf of the two customers: China Guangdong Nuclear Power Co for Yangjiang, and CNNC for Sanmen (in Zhejiang province). Bids are for the nuclear portion of each plant only, the turbine tenders will be called for subsequently - Alstom and Siemens being mentioned as likely suppliers.

Meanwhile the Guangdong Nuclear Power Group has signed contracts with Chinese designers and manufacturers for two 1000 MWe reactors as phase 2 of the Lingao power station. Construction will start in December 2005 and the units are due on line in 2010 and 2011. Lingao phase 2 (Lingdong) will virtually replicate phase 1 but be fully indigenous.

Further developments proposed in the eleventh 5-year plan 2006-10 are in Shandong province, with two 1000 MWe units planned for Haiyang, two at Hongyanhe, Dalian in Liaoning province (NE), two at Tianwei, Lufeng in Guangdong province and two at Hui An, Fujian province.

More than 16 provinces, regions and municipalities have announced intentions to build nuclear power plants in the eleventh 5-year plan. These include Henan, Hubei, Hunan, and Guangxi, as well as those tabulated below - most of which have preliminary project approval by the central government but are not necessarily scheduled for construction. Provinces will put together firm proposals with reactor vendors by 2008 and submit them to the central government for approval before 2010.

A commercial prototype high-temperature gas-cooled reactor, the HTR-PM of 195 MWe is then planned, to be built 2006-10 at Weihai in Shandong province by a consortium led by the Huaneng Group Co. - the country's largest generating utility but hitherto without nuclear capacity (see also R&D section below).

The technology base for further reactors remains undefined. CNNC has been working with Westinghouse and Framatome ANP to develop a Chinese standard 3-loop design, the CNP-1000 based on Daya Bay and Lingao units, with high (60 GWd/t) burn-up and up to 24 month refueling cycle. CNNC is keen to transfer technology to the CNP-1000 design from Westinghouse and/or Framatome ANP third-generation designs built as a result of successful bid(s) for the Sanmen and Yangjiang plants to create its own brand of advanced second-generation reactor. Alternatively, these designs themselves, involving advanced third-generation reactors, may form the basis of China's nuclear future for large plants - an outcome apparently sought by China's State Nuclear Power Technology Corp (SNPTC).

Having so far left the Chinese reactor market to others, GE is commending its new reactor designs for the next tranche of orders there. China has expressed interest in the ABWR, though it has had a de facto policy of favouring pressurised water designs, but GE will offer its two boiling water types - the ABWR which is operating in Japan and under construction there and in Taiwan, and the newer ESBWR which features strongly in US plans for new capacity. GE Nuclear and its Japanese partners are in discussion with CNNC and provincial governments.

Smaller plants are likely to be 160 MWe High Temperature Gas Cooled reactors with pebble bed fuel, similar to that being marketed by South Africa. See R&D section below.

The China Zhongyuan Engineering Corporation is involved with preparations to construct a 300 MWe nuclear power plant at Chasma in Pakistan - a twin to that already commissioned in 2000.

On Taiwan imports account for 95% of the energy, and are vital to the rapidly industrialising economy. Electricity demand is growing at over 5% per year. Nuclear power has been a significant part of the electricity supply for two decades and now provides about 40% of base load and 21% overall, though nuclear comprises only 14% of 34.6 GWe installed capacity. Total power delivered in 2004 was 181 billion kWh.

The three nuclear plants comprise four General Electric boiling water reactors and two Westinghouse pressurised water reactors. Construction of the first unit began in 1972. They are all operated by the utility Taipower, under the Ministry of Economic Affairs.

There are two 1350 MWe Advanced Boiling Water Reactors under construction at Lungmen, near Taipei. They were scheduled for commercial operation in mid 2006 and mid 2007, but current estimates suggest 2010. Initial bids to supply the units on a turnkey basis were rejected, and contacts were awarded to GE for the nuclear reactors, Mitsubishi for the turbines and others for the rest. Construction began in 1999.